Pergeseran Makna Kata

1. Meluas
Meluas artinya cakupan makna kata ini lebih luas daripada masa lalu.
Contoh :
a. Saudara
Contoh kalimat :
Saudara-saudara dimohon duduk kembali!
Makna kata :
Dahulu        : Anak yang sekandung
Sekarang          : Panggilan untuk semua orang.   
b. Bapak
Contoh kalimat :
Bapak yang berbaju merah itu adalah seorang pengusaha.
Makna kata :
Dahulu    : Panggilan kepada orang tua laki-laki/ayah kandung
Sekarang    : Panggilan kepada semua orang laki-laki yang lebih tua

2. Menyempit
Menyempit artinya cakupan makna kata ini lebih sempit dari pada sebelumnya.
a. Pendeta
Contoh kalimat :
Para Pendeta itu sedang melakukan kebaktian.
Makna kata :
Dahulu        : Orang yang berilmu
Sekarang    : Guru Kristen
b. Sastra
Contoh kalimat :
Karya sastranya sangat mengagumkan.

Makna kata :
Dahulu    : Tulisan dalam arti umum
Sekarang    : Maknanya berarti tulisan yang berbau seni.




3. Ameliorasi
Ameliorasi artinya perubahan makna kata yang nilai rasanya lebih tinggi dari pada asalnya.
a.  Wanita
Contoh kalimat :
Wanita itu seorang pekerja keras.
Makna kata :
Asalnya    : Lebih rendah dari pada perempuan.
Baru        : Lebih tinggi dari pada perempuan.
b. Putra
Contoh kalimat :
Bibiku mempunyai seorang putra.
Makna kata :
Asalnya    : Anak laki-laki
Baru    : Lebih tinggi dari pada anak.


4. Peyorasi
Peyorasi maksudnya adalah perubahan makna yang nilai rasanya lebih rendah dari pada kata sebelumnya.
a. Kroni
Contoh kalimat :
Olla adalah seorang kroni
Makna kata :
Asalnya     : Sahabat
Baru    : Kawan dari seorang penjahat
b. Bini
Contoh kalimat :   
Laki-laki itu sudah mempunyai seorang bini.
Makna kata : Maksudnya, kata bini lebih rendah dari pada istri

5. Sinestesia
Sinestesia adalah pergeseran makna kata karena adanya penginderaan yang dipertukarkan.
a. Contoh kalimat :
Dia tersinggung mendengar kata-kata temannya yang pedas.
Maksudnya, sesuatu yang seharusnya dirasakan oleh lidah, pada kalimat tersebut diperuntukkan untuk telinga.
b. Contoh kalimat :
Anak kecil itu berwajah manis dan mempesona.
Maksudnya, makna asalnya berarti indera perasa, sedangkan makna baru berarti indera penglihatan.

6. Asosiasi
Asosiasi yaitu perubahan makna kata yang terjadi karena persamaan sifat.
a. Wartawan amplop dan anggota DPR tukang stempel.
Maksudnya, uang sogok dan pasif.
b. Pedagang itu mencatut keuntungan besar.
Maksudnya, adalah Menarik keuntungan sedangkan makna kata awalnya adalah mencatut dengan catut.

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler was born on 20th April, 1889, in the small Austrian town of Braunau near the German border. Both Hitler's parents had come from poor peasant families. His father Alois Hitler, the illegitimate son of a housemaid, was an intelligent and ambitious man and later became a senior customs official.

Klara Hitler was Alois' third wife. Alois was twenty-three years older than Klara and already had two children from his previous marriages. Klara and Alois had five children but only Adolf and a younger sister, Paula, survived to become adults.

Alois, who was fifty-one when Adolf was born, was extremely keen for his son to do well in life. Alois did have another son by an earlier marriage but he had been a big disappointment to him and eventually ended up in prison for theft. Alois was a strict father and savagely beat his son if he did not do as he was told.

Hitler did extremely well at primary school and it appeared he had a bright academic future in front of him. He was also popular with other pupils and was much admired for his leadership qualities. He was also a deeply religious child and for a while considered the possibility of becoming a monk.

Competition was much tougher in the larger secondary school and his reaction to not being top of the class was to stop trying. His father was furious as he had high hopes that Hitler would follow his example and join the Austrian civil service when he left school. However, Hitler was a stubborn child and attempts by his parents and teachers to change his attitude towards his studies were unsuccessful.

Hitler also lost his popularity with his fellow pupils. They were no longer willing to accept him as one of their leaders. As Hitler liked giving orders he spent his time with younger pupils. He enjoyed games that involved fighting and he loved re-enacting battles from the Boer War. His favourite game was playing the role of a commando rescuing Boers from English concentration camps. 

The only teacher Hitler appeared to like at secondary school was Leopold Potsch, his history master. Potsch, like many people living in Upper Austria, was a German Nationalist. Potsch told Hitler and his fellow pupils of the German victories over France in 1870 and 1871 and attacked the Austrians for not becoming involved in these triumphs. Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor of the German Empire, was one of Hitler's early historical heroes.

Hitler's other main interest at school was art. His father was incensed when Hitler told him that instead of joining the civil service he was going to become an artist. The relationship between Hitler and his father deteriorated and the conflict only ended with the death of Alois Hitler in 1903.

Hitler was thirteen when his father died. His death did not cause the family financial hardships. The Hitler family owned their own home and they also received a lump sum and a generous civil service pension.

Klara Hitler, a kind and gentle woman, tended to spoil her son. Like her husband she was keen for Adolf to do well at school. Her attempts at persuasion achieved no more success than her husband's threats and he continued to obtain poor grades.

At the age of fifteen he did so badly in his examinations that he was told he would have to repeat the whole year's work again. Hitler hated the idea and managed to persuade his mother to allow him to leave school without a secondary education qualification. He celebrated by getting drunk. However, he found it an humiliating experience and vowed never to get drunk again. He kept his promise and by the time he reached his thirties he had given up alcohol completely.

When he was eighteen Hitler received an inheritance from his father's will. With the money he moved to Vienna where he planned to become an art student. Hitler had a high opinion of his artistic abilities and was shattered when the Vienna Academy of Art rejected his application. He also applied to the Vienna School of Architecture but was not admitted because he did not have a school leaving certificate.

Hitler was humiliated by these two rejections and could not bring himself to tell his mother what had happened. Instead he continued to live in Vienna pretending he was an art student.

In 1907 Klara Hitler died from cancer. Her death affected him far more deeply than the death of his father. He had fond memories of his mother, carried her photograph wherever he went and, it is claimed, had it in his hand when he died in 1945.

As the eldest child, Hitler now received his father's civil service pension. It was more money than many people received in wages and meant that Hitler did not have to find employment. He spent most of the morning in bed reading and in the afternoon he walked around Vienna studying buildings, visiting museums, and making sketches.

In 1909 Hitler should have registered for military service. He was unwilling to serve Austria, which he despised, so he ignored his call-up papers. It took four years for the authorities to catch up with him. When he had his medical for the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1914 he was rejected as being: "Unfit for combatant and auxiliary duty - too weak. Unable to bear arms."

The outbreak of the First World War provided him with an opportunity for a fresh start. It was a chance for him to become involved in proving that Germany was superior to other European countries. Hitler claimed that when he heard the news of war: "I was overcome with impetuous enthusiasm, and falling on my knees, wholeheartedly thanked Heaven that I had been granted the happiness to live live at this time. Rejecting the idea of fighting for Austria, Hitler volunteered for the German Army. In times of war medical examinations are not so rigorous.

Hitler liked being in the army. For the first time he was part of a group that was fighting for a common goal. Hitler also liked the excitement of fighting in a war. Although fairly cautious in his actions, he did not mind risking his life and impressed his commanding officers for volunteering for dangerous missions.

His fellow soldiers described him as "odd" and "peculiar". One soldier from his regiment, Hans Mend, claimed that Hitler was an isolated figure who spent long periods of time sitting in the corner holding his head in silence. Then all of a sudden, Mend claimed, he would jump up and make a speech. These outbursts were usually attacks on Jews and Marxists who Hitler claimed were undermining the war effort.

Hitler was given the job of despatch-runner. It was a dangerous job as it involved carrying messages from regimental headquarters to the front-line. On one day alone, three out of eight of the regiment's despatch-runners were killed. For the first time since he was at primary school Hitler was a success.

Hitler won five medals including the prestigious Iron Cross during the First World War. His commanding officer wrote: "As a dispatch-runner, he has shown cold-blooded courage and exemplary boldness. Under conditions of great peril, when all the communication lines were cut, the untiring and fearless activity of Hitler made it possible for important messages to go through".

Although much decorated in the war, Hitler only reached the rank of corporal. This was probably due to his eccentric behaviour and the fear that the other soldiers might not obey the man they considered so strange. 

In October 1918, Hitler was blinded in a British mustard gas attack. He was sent to a military hospital and gradually recovered his sight. While he was in hospital Germany surrendered. Hitler went into a state of deep depression, and had periods when he could not stop crying. He spent most of his time turned towards the hospital wall refusing to talk to anyone. Once again Hitler's efforts had ended in failure.

After the war Hitler was stationed in Munich, the capital of Bavaria. While Hitler was in Munich, the capital of Bavaria, Kurt Eisner, leader of the Independent Socialist Party, declared Bavaria a Socialist Republic. Hitler was appalled by the revolution. As a German Nationalist he disagreed with the socialist belief in equality.

Hitler saw socialism as part of a Jewish conspiracy. Many of the socialist leaders in Germany, including Kurt Eisner, Rosa Luxemburg, Ernst Toller and Eugen Levine were Jews. So also were many of the leaders of the October Revolution in Russia. This included Leon Trotsky, Gregory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Dimitri Bogrov, Karl Radek, Yakov Sverdlov, Maxim Litvinov, Adolf Joffe, and Moisei Uritsky. It had not escaped Hitler's notice that Karl Marx, the prophet of socialism, had also been a Jew.

It was no coincidence that Jews had joined socialist and communist parties in Europe. Jews had been persecuted for centuries and therefore were attracted to a movement that proclaimed that all men and women deserved to be treated as equals. This message was reinforced when on 10th July, 1918, the Bolshevik government in Russia passed a law that abolished all discrimination between Jews and non-Jews.

It was not until May, 1919 that the German Army entered Munich and overthrew the Bavarian Socialist Republic. Hitler was arrested with other soldiers in Munich and was accused of being a socialist. Hundreds of socialists were executed without trial but Hitler was able to convince them that he had been an opponent of the regime. To prove this he volunteered to help to identify soldiers who had supported the Socialist Republic. The authorities agreed to this proposal and Hitler was transferred to the commission investigating the revolution.

Information supplied by Hitler helped to track down several soldiers involved in the uprising. His officers were impressed by his hostility to left-wing ideas and he was recruited as a political officer. Hitler's new job was to lecture soldiers on politics. The main aim was to promote his political philosophy favoured by the army and help to combat the influence of the Russian Revolution on the German soldiers.

Hitler, who had for years been ignored when he made political speeches, now had a captive audience. The political climate had also changed. Germany was a defeated and disillusioned country. At Versailles the German government had been forced to sign a peace treaty that gave away 13% of her territory. This meant the loss of 6 million people, a large percentage of her raw materials (65% of iron ore reserves, 45% of her coal, 72% of her zinc) and 10% of her factories. Germany also lost all her overseas colonies.

Under the terms of the Versailles Treaty Germany also had to pay for damage caused by the war. These reparations amounted to 38% of her national wealth.

Hitler was no longer isolated. The German soldiers who attended his lectures shared his sense of failure. They found his message that they were not to blame attractive. He told them that Germany had not been beaten on the battlefield but had been betrayed by Jews and Marxists who had preached revolution and undermined the war effort. 

The German Army also began using Hitler as a spy. In September 1919, he was instructed to attend a meeting of the German Worker's Party (GWP). The army feared that this new party, led by Anton Drexler, might be advocating communist revolution. Hitler discovered that the party's political ideas were similar to his own. He approved of Drexler's German nationalism and anti-Semitism but was unimpressed with the way the party was organized. Although there as a spy, Hitler could not restrain himself when a member made a point he disagreed with, and he stood up and made a passionate speech on the subject.

Drexler was impressed with Hitler's abilities as an orator and invited him to join the party. At first Hitler was reluctant, but urged on by his commanding officer, Captain Karl Mayr, he eventually agreed. He was only the fifty-fourth person to join the GWP. Hitler was immediately asked to join the executive committee and was later appointed the party's propaganda manager.

In the next few weeks Hitler brought several members of his army into the party, including one of his commanding officers, Captain Ernst Roehm. The arrival of Roehm was an important development as he had access to the army political fund and was able to transfer some of the money into the GWP.

The German Worker's Party used some of this money to advertise their meetings. Hitler was often the main speaker and it was during this period that he developed the techniques that made him into such a persuasive orator.

Hitler always arrived late which helped to develop tension and a sense of expectation. He took the stage, stood to attention and waited until there was complete silence before he started his speech. For the first few months Hitler appeared nervous and spoke haltingly. Slowly he would begin to relax and his style of delivery would change. He would start to rock from side to side and begin to gesticulate with his hands. His voice would get louder and become more passionate. Sweat poured of him, his face turned white, his eyes bulged and his voice cracked with emotion. He ranted and raved about the injustices done to Germany and played on his audience's emotions of hatred and envy. By the end of the speech the audience would be in a state of near hysteria and were willing to do whatever Hitler suggested.

As soon as his speech finished Hitler would quickly leave the stage and disappear from view. Refusing to be photographed, Hitler's aim was to create an air of mystery about himself, hoping that it would encourage others to come and hear the man who was now being described as "the new Messiah".

Hitler's reputation as an orator grew and it soon became clear that he was the main reason why people were joining the party. This gave Hitler tremendous power within the organization as they knew they could not afford to lose him. One change suggested by Hitler concerned adding "Socialist" to the name of the party. Hitler had always been hostile to socialist ideas, especially those that involved racial or sexual equality. However, socialism was a popular political philosophy in Germany after the First World War. This was reflected in the growth in the German Social Democrat Party (SDP), the largest political party in Germany.

Hitler, therefore redefined socialism by placing the word 'National' before it. He claimed he was only in favour of equality for those who had "German blood". Jews and other "aliens" would lose their rights of citizenship, and immigration of non-Germans should be brought to an end.

In February 1920, the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) published its first programme which became known as the "25 Points". In the programme the party refused to accept the terms of the Versailles Treaty and called for the reunification of all German people. To reinforce their ideas on nationalism, equal rights were only to be given to German citizens. "Foreigners" and "aliens" would be denied these rights.

To appeal to the working class and socialists, the programme included several measures that would redistribute income and war profits, profit-sharing in large industries, nationalization of trusts, increases in old-age pensions and free education.

On 24th February, 1920, the NSDAP (later nicknamed the Nazi Party) held a mass rally where it announced its new programme. The rally was attended by over 2,000 people, a great improvement on the 25 people who were at Hitler's first party meeting.

Hitler knew that the growth in the party was mainly due to his skills as an orator and in the autumn of 1921 he challenged Anton Drexler for the leadership of the party. After brief resistance Drexler accepted the inevitable, and Hitler became the new leader of the Nazi Party. 

Hitler's ability to arouse in his supporters emotions of anger and hate often resulted in their committing acts of violence. In September 1921, Hitler was sent to prison for three months for being part of a mob who beat up a rival politician.

When Hitler was released, he formed his own private army called Sturm Abteilung (Storm Section). The SA (also known as stormtroopers or brownshirts) were instructed to disrupt the meetings of political opponents and to protect Hitler from revenge attacks. Captain Ernst Roehm of the Bavarian Army played an important role in recruiting these men, and Hermann Goering, a former air-force pilot, became their leader.

Hitler's stormtroopers were often former members of the Freikorps (right-wing private armies who flourished during the period that followed the First World War) and had considerable experience in using violence against their rivals. 

The SA wore grey jackets, brown shirts (khaki shirts originally intended for soldiers in Africa but purchased in bulk from the German Army by the Nazi Party), swastika armbands, ski-caps, knee-breeches, thick woolen socks and combat boots. Accompanied by bands of musicians and carrying swastika flags, they would parade through the streets of Munich. At the end of the march Hitler would make one of his passionate speeches that encouraged his supporters to carry out acts of violence against Jews and his left-wing political opponents.

As this violence was often directed against Socialists and Communists, the local right-wing Bavarian government did not take action against the Nazi Party. However, the national government in Berlin were concerned and passed a "Law for the Protection of the Republic". Hitler's response was to organize a rally attended by 40,000 people. At the meeting Hitler called for the overthrow of the German government and even suggested that its leaders should be executed.

In 1923 the German Government had to deal with a series of difficult problems. In January the French ArmyRuhr because they claimed Germany was falling behind with her reparations. Workers in the Ruhr responded by going on strike which badly hurt the German economy. One of the consequences of this was rapid inflation. As people found their savings becoming worthless, they turned against their government. occupied the

On 13th August, Gustav Stresemann became the new Chancellor of Germany. When Stresemann decided to call off resistance to the French occupation of the Ruhr and to start paying reparations to the Allies again, Hitler decided it was time for him to become the new leader of Germany.

On 8th November, 1923, the Bavarian government held a meeting of about 3,000 officials. While Gustav von Kahr, the leader of the Bavarian government was making a speech, Hitler and armed stormtroopers entering the building. Hitler jumped onto a table, fired two shots in the air and told the audience that the Munich Putsch was taking place and the National Revolution had began.

Leaving Hermann Goering and the SA to guard the 3,000 officials, Hitler took Gustav von Kahr, Otto von Lossow, the commander of the Bavarian Army and Hans von Seisser, the commandant of the Bavarian State Police into an adjoining room. Hitler told the men that he was to be the new leader of Germany and offered them posts in his new government. Aware that this would be an act of high treason, the three men were initially reluctant to agree to this offer. Hitler was furious and threatened to shoot them and then commit suicide: "I have three bullets for you, gentlemen, and one for me!" After this the three men agreed.

Soon afterwards Eric Ludendorff arrived. Ludendorff had been leader of the German Army at the end of the First World War. He had therefore found Hitler's claim that the war had not been lost by the army but by Jews, Socialists, Communists and the German government, attractive, and was a strong supporter of the Nazi Party. Ludendorff agreed to become head of the the German Army in Hitler's government.

While Hitler had been appointing government ministers, Ernst Roehm, leading a group of stormtroopers, had seized the War Ministry and Rudolf Hess was arranging the arrest of Jews and left-wing political leaders in Bavaria.

Hitler now planned to march on Berlin and remove the national government. Surprisingly, Hitler had not arranged for the stormtroopers to take control of the radio stations and the telegraph offices. This meant that the national government in Berlin soon heard about Hitler's putsch and gave orders for it to be crushed.

The next day Hitler, Eric Ludendorff, Hermann Goering and 3,000 armed supporters of the Nazi Party marched through Munich in an attempt to join up with Roehm's forces at the War Ministry. At Odensplatz they found the road blocked by the Munich police. As they refused to stop, the police fired into the ground in front of the marchers. The stormtroopers returned the fire and during the next few minutes 21 people were killed and another hundred were wounded, included Goering.

When the firing started Hitler threw himself to the ground dislocating his shoulder. Hitler lost his nerve and ran to a nearby car. Although the police were outnumbered, the Nazis followed their leader's example and ran away. Only Eric Ludendorff and his adjutant continued walking towards the police. Later Nazi historians were to claim that the reason Hitler left the scene so quickly was because he had to rush an injured young boy to the local hospital.

After hiding in a friend's house for several days, Hitler was arrested and put on trial for his role in the Beer Hall Putsch. If found guilty, Hitler faced the death penalty. While in prison Hitler suffered from depression and talked of committing suicide. However, it soon became clear that the Nazi sympathizers in the Bavarian government were going to make sure that Hitler would not be punished severely.

At his trial Hitler was allowed to turn the proceedings into a political rally, and although he was found guilty he only received the minimum sentence of five years. Other members of the Nazi Party also received light sentences and Eric Ludendorff was acquitted.

Hitler was sent to Landsberg Castle in Munich to serve his prison sentence. He was treated well and was allowed to walk in the castle grounds, wear his own clothes and receive gifts. Officially there were restrictions on visitors but this did not apply to Hitler, and a steady flow of friends, party members and journalists spent long spells with him. He was even allowed to have visits from his pet Alsatian dog.

While in Landsberg he read a lot of books. Most of these dealt with German history and political philosophy. Later he was to describe his spell in prison as a "free education at the state's expense." One writer who influenced Hitler while in prison was Henry Ford, the American car-manufacturer. Hitler read Ford's autobiography, My Life and Work, and a book of his called The International Jew. In the latter Ford claimed that there was a Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. Hitler also approved of Ford's hostile views towards communism and trade unions.

Max Amnan, his business manager, proposed that Hitler should spend his time in prison writing his autobiography. Hitler, who had never fully mastered writing, was at first not keen on the idea. However, he agreed when it was suggested that he should dictate his thoughts to a ghostwriter. The prison authorities surprisingly agreed that Hitler's chauffeur, Emil Maurice, could live in the prison to carry out this task.

Maurice, whose main talent was as a street fighter, was a poor writer and the job was eventually taken over by Rudolf Hess, a student at Munich University. Hess made a valiant attempt at turning Hitler's spoken ideas into prose. However, the book that Hitler wrote in prison was repetitive, confused, turgid and therefore, extremely difficult to read. In his writing, Hitler was unable to use the passionate voice and dramatic bodily gestures which he had used so effectively in his speeches, to convey his message.

Thomas Alfa Edison

Thomas Alva Edison was born on February 11, 1847 in Milan, Ohio; the seventh and last child of Samuel and Nancy Edison. When Edison was seven his family moved to Port Huron, Michigan. Edison lived here until he struck out on his own at the age of sixteen. Edison had very little formal education as a child, attending school only for a few months. He was taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by his mother, but was always a very curious child and taught himself much by reading on his own. This belief in self-improvement remained throughout his life.

Work as a Telegrapher

Edison began working at an early age, as most boys did at the time. At thirteen he took a job as a newsboy, selling newspapers and candy on the local railroad that ran through Port Huron to Detroit. He seems to have spent much of his free time reading scientific, and technical books, and also had the opportunity at this time to learn how to operate a telegraph. By the time he was sixteen, Edison was proficient enough to work as a telegrapher full time.

First Patent

The development of the telegraph was the first step in the communication revolution, and the telegraph industry expanded rapidly in the second half of the 19th century. This rapid growth gave Edison and others like him a chance to travel, see the country, and gain experience. Edison worked in a number of cities throughout the United States before arriving in Boston in 1868. Here Edison began to change his profession from telegrapher to inventor. He received his first patent on an electric vote recorder, a device intended for use by elected bodies such as Congress to speed the voting process. This invention was a commercial failure. Edison resolved that in the future he would only invent things that he was certain the public would want.

Marriage to Mary Stilwell

Edison moved to New York City in 1869. He continued to work on inventions related to the telegraph, and developed his first successful invention, an improved stock ticker called the "Universal Stock Printer". For this and some related inventions Edison was paid $40,000. This gave Edison the money he needed to set up his first small laboratory and manufacturing facility in Newark, New Jersey in 1871. During the next five years, Edison worked in Newark inventing and manufacturing devices that greatly improved the speed and efficiency of the telegraph. He also found to time to get married to Mary Stilwell and start a family.

Move to Menlo Park

In 1876 Edison sold all his Newark manufacturing concerns and moved his family and staff of assistants to the small village of Menlo Park, twenty-five miles southwest of New York City. Edison established a new facility containing all the equipment necessary to work on any invention. This research and development laboratory was the first of its kind anywhere; the model for later, modern facilities such as Bell Laboratories, this is sometimes considered to be Edison's greatest invention. Here Edison began to change the world.

The first great invention developed by Edison in Menlo Park was the tin foil phonograph. The first machine that could record and reproduce sound created a sensation and brought Edison international fame. Edison toured the country with the tin foil phonograph, and was invited to the White House to demonstrate it to President Rutherford B. Hayes in April 1878.

Kerajaan Majapahit

Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit

Pada saat terjadi serangan Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya bertugas menghadang bagian utara, ternyata serangan yang lebih besar justru dilancarkan dari selatan. Maka ketika Raden Wijaya kembali ke Istana, ia melihat Istana Kerajaan Singasari hampir habis dilalap api dan mendengar Kertanegara telah terbunuh bersama pembesar-pembesar lainnya. Akhirnya ia melarikan diri bersama sisa-sisa tentaranya yang masih setia dan dibantu penduduk desa Kugagu. Setelah merasa aman ia pergi ke Madura meminta perlindungan dari Aryawiraraja. Berkat bantuannya ia berhasil menduduki tahta, dengan menghadiahkan daerah tarik kepada Raden Wijaya sebagai daerah kekuasaannya. Ketika tentara Mongol datang ke Jawa dengan dipimpin Shih-Pi, Ike-Mise, dan Kau Hsing dengan tujuan menghukum Kertanegara, maka Raden Wijaya memanfaatkan situasi itu untuk bekerja sama menyerang Jayakatwang. Setelah Jayakatwang terbunuh, tentara Mongol berpesta pora merayakan kemenanganya. Kesempatan itu pula dimanfaatkan oleh Raden Wijaya untuk berbalik melawan tentara Mongol, sehingga tentara Mongol terusir dari Jawa dan pulang ke negrinya. Maka tahun 1293 Raden Wijaya naik tahta dan bergelar Sri Kertajasa Jayawardhana.

Raja-raja Majapahit
Kertajasa Jawardhana (1293 – 1309)
Merupakan pendiri kerajaan Majapahit, pada masa pemerintahannya, Raden Wijaya dibantu oleh mereka yang turut berjasa dalam merintis berdirinya Kerajaan Majapahit, Aryawiraraja yang sangat besar jasanya diberi kekuasaan atas sebelah Timur meliputi daerah Lumajang, Blambangan. Raden Wijaya memerintah dengan sangat baik dan bijaksana. Susunan pemerintahannya tidak berbeda dengan susunan pemerintahan Kerajaan Singasari.

Raja Jayanegara (1309-1328)
Kala Gemet naik tahta menggantikan ayahnya dengan gelar Sri Jayanegara. Pada Masa pemerintahannnya ditandai dengan pemberontakan-pemberontakan. Misalnya pemberontakan Ranggalawe 1231 saka, pemberontakan Lembu Sora 1233 saka, pemberontakan Juru Demung 1235 saka, pemberontakan Gajah Biru 1236 saka, Pemberontakan Nambi, Lasem, Semi, Kuti dengan peristiwa Bandaderga. Pemberontakan Kuti adalah pemberontakan yang berbahaya, hampir meruntuhkan Kerajaan Majapahit. Namun semua itu dapat diatasi. Raja Jayanegara dibunuh oleh tabibnya sendiri yang bernama Tanca. Tanca akhirnya dibunuh pula oleh Gajah Mada.

Tribuwana Tunggadewi (1328 – 1350)
Raja Jayanegara meninggal tanpa meninggalkan seorang putrapun, oleh karena itu yang seharusnya menjadi raja adalah Gayatri, tetapi karena ia telah menjadi seorang Bhiksu maka digantikan oleh putrinya Bhre Kahuripan dengan gelar Tribuwana Tunggadewi, yang dibantu oleh suaminya yang bernama Kartawardhana. Pada tahun 1331 timbul pemberontakan yang dilakukan oleh daerah Sadeng dan Keta (Besuki). Pemberontakan ini berhasil ditumpas oleh Gajah Mada yang pada saat itu menjabat Patih Daha. Atas jasanya ini Gajah Mada diangkat sebagai Mahapatih Kerajaan Majapahit menggantikan Pu Naga. Gajah Mada kemudian berusaha menunjukkan kesetiaannya, ia bercita-cita menyatukan wilayah Nusantara yang dibantu oleh Mpu Nala dan Adityawarman. Pada tahun 1339, Gajah Mada bersumpah tidak makan Palapa sebelum wilayah Nusantara bersatu. Sumpahnya itu dikenal dengan Sumpah Palapa, adapun isi dari amukti palapa adalah sebagai berikut :”Lamun luwas kalah nusantara isum amakti palapa, lamun kalah ring Gurun, ring Seram, ring Sunda, ring Palembang, ring Tumasik, samana sun amukti palapa”. Kemudian Gajah Mada melakukan penaklukan-penaklukan.

Hayam Wuruk
Hayam Wuruk naik tahta pada usia yang sangat muda yaitu 16 tahun dan bergelar Rajasanegara. Di masa pemerintahan Hayam Wuruk yang didampingi oleh Mahapatih Gajah Mada, Majapahit mencapai keemasannya. Dari Kitab Negerakertagama dapat diketahui bahwa daerah kekuasaan pada masa pemerintahan Hayam Wuruk, hampir sama luasnya dengan wilayah Indonesia yang sekarang, bahkan pengaruh kerajaan Majapahit sampai ke negara-negara tettangga. Satu-satunya daerah yang tidak tunduk kepada kekuasaaan Majapahit adalah kerajaan Sunda yang saat itu dibawah kekuasaan Sri baduga Maharaja. Hayam Wuruk bermaksud mengambil putri Sunda untuk dijadikan permaisurinya. Setelah putri Sunda (Diah Pitaloka) serta ayahnya Sri Baduga Maharaja bersama para pembesar Sunda berada di Bubat, Gajah Mada melakukan tipu muslihat, Gajah Mada tidak mau perkawinan Hayam Wuruk dengan putri Sunda dilangsungkan begitu saja. Ia menghendaki agar putri Sunda dipersembahkan kepada Majapahit (sebagai upeti). Maka terjadilah perselisihan paham dan akhirnya terjadinya perang Bubat. Banyak korban dikedua belah pihak, Sri Baduga gugur, putri Sunda bunuh diri.

Tahun 1364 Gajah Mada meninggal, Kerajaan Majapahit kehilangan seorang mahapatih yang tak ada duanya. Untuk memilih penggantinya bukan suatu pekerjaan yang mudah. Dewan Saptaprabu yang sudah beberapa kali mengadakan sidang untuk memilih pengganti Gajah Mada akhirnya memutuskan bahwa Patih Hamungkubhumi Gajah Mada tidak akan diganti “untuk mengisi kekosongan dalam pelaksanaan pemerintahan diangkat Mpu Tandi sebagais Wridhamantri, Mpu Nala sebagai menteri Amancanegara dan patih dami sebagai Yuamentri. Raja Hayam Wuruk meninggal pada tahun 1389.

Wikramawardhana
Putri mahkota Kusumawardhani yang naik tahta menggantikan ayahnya bersuamikan Wikramawardhana. Dalam prakteknya Wikramawardhanalah yang menjalankan roda pemerintahan. Sedangkan Bhre Wirabhumi anak Hayam Wuruk dari selir, karena Bhre Wirabhumi (Putri Hayam Wuruk) dari selir maka ia tidak berhak menduduki tahta kerajaan walaupun demikian ia masih diberi kekuasaan untuk memerintah di Bagian Timur Majapahit , yaitu daerah Blambangan. Perebutan kekuasaan antara Wikramawardhana dengan Bhre Wirabhumi disebut perang Paregreg.

Wikramawardhana meninggal tahun 1429, pemerintahan raja-raja berikutnya berturut-turut adalah Suhita, Kertawijaya, Rajasa Wardhana, Purwawisesa dan Brawijaya V, yang tidak luput ditandai perebutan kekuasaan.

Sumber Sejarah
Sumber sejarah mengenai berdiri dan berkembangnya kerajaan Majapahit berasal dari berbagai sumber yakni :

Prasasti Butok (1244 tahun). Prasasti ini dikeluarkan oleh Raden Wijaya setelah ia berhasil naik tahta kerajaan. Prasasti ini memuat peristiwa keruntuhan kerajaan Singasari dan perjuangan Raden Wijaya untuk mendirikan kerajaan

Kidung Harsawijaya dan Kidung Panji Wijayakrama, kedua kidung ini menceritakan Raden Wijaya ketika menghadapi musuh dari kediri dan tahun-tahun awal perkembangan Majapahit

Kitab Pararaton, menceritakan tentang pemerintahan raja-raja Singasari dan Majapahit

Kitab Negarakertagama, menceritakan tentang perjalanan Rajam Hayam Wuruk ke Jawa Timur.

Kehidupan Politk
Majapahit selalu menjalankan politik bertetangga yang baik dengan kerajaan asing, seperti Kerajaan Cina, Ayodya (Siam), Champa dan Kamboja. Hal itu terbukti sekitar tahun 1370 – 1381, Majapahit telah beberapa kali mengirim utusan persahabatan ke Cina. Hal itu diketahui dari berita kronik Cina dari Dinasti Ming.

Raja kerajaan Majapahit sebagai negarawan ulung juga sebagai politikus-politikus yang handal. Hal ini dibuktikan oleh Raden Wiajaya, Hayam Wuruk, dan Maha Patih Gajahmada dalam usahanya mewujudkan kerajaan besar, tangguh dan berwibawa. Struktur pemerintahan di pusat pemerintahan Majapahit :

1. Raja
2. Yuaraja atau Kumaraja (Raja Muda)
3. Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini

a. Mahamantri i-hino
b. Mahamantri i –hulu
c. Mahamantri i-sirikan

4. Rakryan Mahamantri ri Pakirakiran

a. Rakryan Mahapatih (Panglima/Hamangkubhumi)
b. Rakryan Tumenggung (panglima Kerajaan)
c. Rakryan Demung (Pengatur Rumah Tangga Kerajaan)
d. Rakryan Kemuruhan (Penghubung dan tugas-tugas protokoler) dan
e. Rakryan Rangga (Pembantu Panglima)

5. Dharmadyaka yang diduduki oleh 2 orang, masing-masing dharmadyaka dibantu oleh sejumlah pejabat keagamaan yang disebut Upapat. Pada masa hayam Wuruk ada 7 Upapati.

Selain pejabat-pejabat yang telah disebutkan dibawah raja ada sejumlah raja daerah (paduka bharata) yang masing-masing memerintah suatu daerah. Disamping raja-raja daerah adapula pejabat-pejabat sipil maupun militer. Dari susunan pemerintahannya kita dapat melihat bahwa sistem pemerintahan dan kehidupan politik kerjaan Majapahit sudah sangat teratur.

Kehidupan Sosial Ekonomi dan Kebudayaan
Hubungan persahabatan yang dijalin dengan negara tentangga itu sangat mendukung dalam bidang perekonomian (pelayaran dan perdagangan). Wilayah kerajaan Majapahit terdiri atas pulau dan daerah kepulauan yang menghasilkan berbagai sumber barang dagangan.

Barang dagangan yang dipasarkan antara lain beras, lada, gading, timah, besi, intan, ikan, cengkeh, pala, kapas dan kayu cendana.

Dalam dunia perdagangan, kerajaan Majapahit memegang dua peranan yang sangat penting.
Sebagai kerajaan Produsen – Majapahit mempunyai wilayah yang sangat luas dengan kondisi tanah yang sangat subur. Dengan daerah subur itu maka kerajaan Majapahit merupakan produsen barang dagangan.

Sebagai Kerajaan Perantara – Kerajaan Majapahit membawa hasil bumi dari daerah yang satu ke daerah yang lainnya. Keadaan masyarakat yang teratur mendukung terciptanya karya-karya budaya yang bermutu. bukti-bukti perkembangan kebudayaan di kerajaan Majapahit dapat diketahui melalui peninggalan-peninggalan berikut ini :

Candi : Antara lain candi Penataran (Blitar), Candi Tegalwangi dan candi Tikus (Trowulan).

Sastra : Hasil sastra zaman Majapahit dapat kita bedakan menjadi
Sastra Zaman Majapahit Awal

• Kitab Negarakertagama, karangan Mpu Prapanca
• Kitab Sutasoma, karangan Mpu Tantular
• Kitab Arjunawiwaha, karangan Mpu Tantular
• Kitab Kunjarakarna
• Kitab Parhayajna

Sastra Zaman Majapahit Akhir

• Hasil sastra zaman Majapahit akhir ditulis dalam bahasa Jawa Tengah, diantaranya ada yang ditulis dalam bentuk tembang (kidung) dan yang ditulis dalam bentuk gancaran (prosa). Hasil sastra terpenting antara lain :
• Kitab Prapanca, isinya menceritakan raja-raja Singasari dan Majapahit
• Kitab Sundayana, isinya tentang peristiwa Bubat
• Kitab Sarandaka, isinya tentang pemberontakan sora
• Kitab Ranggalawe, isinya tentang pemberontakan Ranggalawe
• Panjiwijayakrama, isinya menguraikan riwayat Raden Wijaya sampai menjadi raja
• Kitab Usana Jawa, isinya tentang penaklukan Pulau Bali oleh Gajah Mada dan Aryadamar, pemindahan Keraton Majapahit ke Gelgel dan penumpasan raja raksasa bernama Maya Denawa.
• Kitab Usana Bali, isinya tentanng kekacauan di Pulau Bali.

Selain kitab-kitab tersebut masih ada lagi kitab sastra yang penting pada zaman Majapahit akhir seperti Kitab Paman Cangah, Tantu Pagelaran, Calon Arang, Korawasrama, Babhulisah, Tantri Kamandaka dan Pancatantra.

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton . He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (14 Maret 1879 - 18 April 1955) adalah seorang ilmuan fisika teoritis yang di pandang luas sebagai ilmuwan terbesar dalam abad ke-20.